Skin: Also known at cutaneous membrane - The organ that covers the outer surface of the body.

The skin is one of the largest of the organs, with an adult surface area of about two square miles. It is made of two main layers: the outer epidermis, which is made of epithelial tissue; and the inner dermis, made of connective tissue. Attached to and underlying these layers is a subcutaneous layer of connective and fatty tissues; this layer, known as the hypodermis in turn connects to the body's internal organs. The hypodermis is not usually considered part of the skin, although it is composed of similar tissues and serves a parallel function — to protect the body's organs.

The skin serves several key purposes. It protects the body from injury and from the introduction of pathogens. It also is important in maintaining body temperature; the body is cooled through sweat released from the glands in the skin, and changes in blood flow can alter the skin s insulating ability, Nerves in the skin allow for reception of stimuli. Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin upon exposure to ultraviolet radiation; some cells in the epidermis form part of the immune system.

SKIN COLOR

Skin color is a function of three different kinds pigment cells made in the skin and elsewhere in the body; these are carotene, hemoglobin, and melanin. Of these, only melanin is produced in the skin. Carotene is a yellow-orange pigment that accumulates in the hypodermis, and its color is most apparent on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. Red blood cells circulating through capillaries in the epidermal skin layer contain the hemoglobin that makes some people's skin appear as though it has a pinkish hue.

Perhaps the most important of the skin pigments is melanin — its color ranges from yellow, to brown and reddish brown, to black. Skin color variations are caused by the kind and amount of melanin that a body produces. Individuals with black or brown skin produce more melanin than those with pale yellow or pink skin. Freckles are close collections of melanin. Melanin is produced by cells called malanocyes; production increases when they are exposed to sunlight, thus leading to sunburn.

Relevant related anatomical articles include ANATOMY; FORESKIN; NERVE; VITAMIN D; WART; and WRINKLE. Information related to skin color can be found in BLOOD; FRECKLE; HEMOGLOBIN; and MELANIN. Skin problems are discussed in ACNE; CARCINOMA; CHAPPED SKIN; CHERRY ANGIOMA; MELANOMA; NEUROCUTANEOUS DISORDERS; SKIN ALLERGY; and SKIN CANCER. See also POISON IVY, OAK, AND SUMAC.

The epidermis is the thin outer layer of the skin. A covering of dead cells on the surface helps protect the living cells underneath. The surface of the epidermis varies in texture depending on the part of the body it covers; for instance, the grooved surface of the fingertips provides a better grip. The cells of the epidermis manufacture keratin, a protein that gives skin its toughness and durability.

The epidermis has a fatty component that keeps in water to maintain resiliency and keeps out water from the environment. The surface of the skin is covered with sweat and oil (sebum) and a covering of fine hair, all of which help to resist against germs. As dead cells are sloughed off, many microbes are shed with them. In addition to these passive germ-fighting mechanisms, specialized cells called the cells of Langerhans actively provide information to the immune system about what type of microorganism is entering the body. At the bottom (base) of the epidermis are the basal cells, which are the rapidly multiplying new cells. As the new cells are pushed up toward the surface, they increase the amounts of keratin to maximize the toughness. Toward the bottom of the epidermis are melanocytes, cells that produce the pigment melanin to help limit damage from sun light.

DERMIS

Under the epidermis is the thicker layer called the dermis. The dermis is connective tissue made of the proteins collagen and elastin, which give skin its strength and elasticity. The dermis contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, oil (sebaceous) glands, and sweat glands. The skin contains two kinds of sweat glands. Eccrine glands cover the whole body, except for the lips and external genitalia, and are most numerous on the palms, soles, forehead, and underarms.

The apocrine glands, particularly abundant under the arms and around the nipples and genitals, produce sweat with a strong scent. Apocrine glands secrete in response to body temperature and emotion. Sweating is primarily controlled by the hypothalamus in the brain. The hair follicles, which contain the roots of the HAIR, are also in the dermis; in fact hair cells (and nail cells) are a differentiated type of skin cell. Small involuntary muscles attached to the hair follicles cause the hair to stand up in response to certain emotions, such as fear — leading to the tingling sensation known as goose bumps.

SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER

The deep underlying layer of the skin is composed of fat cells that act as a shock absorber between the skin and more delicate internal tissues and organs.

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